de Smet, Peter A. G. M. & Rivier, Laurent.
Intoxicating Snuffs of the Venezuelan Piaroa Indians.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 17/2:93-103. (1985)
JUNIPER; ROBBINS; JOEL
The Carnivorous Plants. Part IV: Phytochemical Aspects
The Carnivorous Plants; 1989 Academic Press, ISBN 0-12-392170-8
NEPENTHES: Linnaeus gave the plant it's present name in 1753, in allusion to the story in Homer's Odyssey where Helen mixed wine with the drug 'Nepenthe' (Greek. literally 'No Mind') so that by drinking it man might be freed from care and grief. The shape of the pitchers in some species resembles the Greek rhincton or drinking horn. [Genera & distribution of pitcher plants] Heliamphora: British Guiana, Venezuela, Brazil. Darlingtonia: Northern California, Southern Oregon. Sarracenia: North America. Cephalotus: Western Australia. Nepenthes: Madagascar, Borneo, Indonesia, Southeast Asia, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, Queensland Australia, Malaysia. AMINES: Histamine has been detected in the leaf tissues of a number of genera (Werle 1955). In both Nepenthes and Drosera the level appears to be higher in those parts of the leaf associated with the traps, though the level is variable. In these cases, as well as in Sarracenia and Pinguicula, the concentration is in the range 2-13 ug/g fresh weight. Acetylcholine-like compounds were also detected in Nepenthes (Morrisey 1963)... ALKALOIDS: Alkaloids, while not unknown, are relatively uncommon amongst the carnivorous plants. In view of their requirements for nitrogen in the molecules it is perhaps not suprising that these plants, living in nitrogen-limited environments, use other types of compounds as protective agents. Porcher (1849) was unable to detect morphine, nicotine or quinine in either Sarracenia flava or S. minor although Shepard (in Porcher 1849) reported a new alkaloid, possibly related to chinchonine. Sarracenia purpurea plants yielded veratrine (Hetet 1879), which possibly was Sheperd's alkaloid. Bjorklund (1864) isolated coniine from roots of S. purpurea but not leaves, though Lambert(1902) subsequently identified coniine as a volatile base produced by fresh leaves of this species. Romeo et al. (1977) could not, however isolate any alkaloid from all 10 species of Sarracenia but Mody et al. (1976) using large amounts of S. flava leaves (4.5 kg), showed that the unknown (1.9% total oil) C8H17N extracted by Miles et al.(1975) is again coniine. The other unknown C5H11NO (0.5%) may also be an alkaloid, but awaits identification. Recent work has not been able to confirm the presence of veratrine in Sarracenia. The variability in these reports may indicate seasonal and/or regional differences in alkaloid production, possibly related to carnivorous activity. Pinguicula vulgaris does not appear to contain any alkaloids (Christen 1961): nor does Nepenthes rafflesiana (Cannon et al. 1980).
LIMA L; DRUJAN B; WALDER R
Cerebral serotonin in viral encephalitis.
J Neural Transm Suppl. 1990; 29: 141-51
In order to evaluate central serotonergic function during viral encephalitis biochemical, behavioural and immunohistofluorescence studies were carried out. Mice were inoculated with the moderate virulent strain of venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus, Pixuna. Signs of encephalitis were observed in 50-60% of infected animals. Levels of serotonin and 5-hydroxyindolacetic acid, and the ratio of the indolamine and its metabolite in raphe and cortex did not change with respect to sham-inoculated mice. A differential decrease in turnover rate by pharmacological methods, such as pargyline, p-chlorophenylalanine and probenecid administration, was observed in raphe and cortex. The ratio serotonin turnover rate/steady state concentration of serotonin was only decreased in the raphe of sick animals. The response to 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine was greater in infected animals. The duration of immobility in the swim test was shorter in the infected group. A greater number of viral antigen particles was localized in raphe and periraphe areas than in cortex, brain stem or striatum. The results suggest a serotonin presynaptic deficit, a postsynaptic hyperreactivity of serotonin system, and a region-selective distribution of the virus.
SCHULTES R E; HOFMANN A
Epena, Nyakwana, Yakee
Plants of the Gods: Origins of hallucinogenic use; p 68
COMMON NAMES: Epena, Nyakwana, Yakee. BOTANICAL NAME: Virola calophylla, V. elongata, V. theiodora. USAGE HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPY: In Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela and Peru a number of species of Virola are used, the most important of which appears to be V. theiodora. The hallucinogenic snuff has vairious names depending on the locality or tribe, with the most commonly recognized terms being Parica, Epena, and Nyakwana in Brazil, Yakee and Yato in Colombia. USAGE CONTEXT AND PURPOSE: Epena or Nyakwana may be snuffed cermonially by all adult males, occasionally even without any ritual connection. The medicine men use the drug in diagnosis and treatment of illnesses. The use of Yakee or Parica is restricted to shamans. PREPARATION: Some Indians scrape the inner layer of the bark and dry the shavings over a fire. When pulverizedm powdered leaves of Justicia, the ashes of Amasita, the bark of Elizabetha princeps, my be added. Other Indians fell the tree, collect the resin, boil it to a paste, sun-dry the paste, crush and sift it. Ashes of several barks and the leaf powder of Justicia may be added. A further method is to knead the inner shavings of freshly stripped bark and to squeeze out resin and boil it to a paste which is sun-dried and prepared into snuff with ashes added. A group of very primitive Maku Indians in the Colombian Vaupes ingest the unprepared resin as it is collected form the bark. CHEMICAL COMPONENTS AND EFFECTS: Tryptamine and beta-carboline alkaloids, 5-methoxy-dimethyltryptamine and dimethyltryptamine, being the main constituents, are repsonsible for the hallucinogenic activity. Effects of the intoxication vary. They usually include intial excitability, setting in within several minutes from the first stuffing. Then follows numbness of the limbs, twitching of the facial muscles, inability to coordinate muscular activity, nausea, visual hallucinations, and finally, a deep, undisturbed sleep.
SCHULTES; HOFMANN
Indole alkaloids in plant hallucinogens.
Journal of Psychedelic Drugs Jan-Mar 1976 p 17
Anadenanthera peregrina, PHOTO:seeds collected in Puerto Rico; PHOTO:tree in Boa Vista, Territorio de Roraima, Brazil. Yopo Snuff:Orinoco basin, Colombia & Venezuela, possibly isolated areas in the southern part of the Brazilian Amazon. The tree grows in open plain areas, not in tropical forests. It was early taken by invading Indians to the West Indies, where even today its distribution indicates its adventitious nature. Hispaniola. Mimosa hostilis: 'dry parts of Pernambuco, Brazil'.
SCHULTES; HOFMANN
Seeds of the Hekula Spirit.
Plants of the Gods. p 116
PHOTO:Boa Vista, Rio Branco. Open grasslands or 'campos' of the northern Amazon of Brazil 'Colombian Andes, east across the 'llanos' or plains to the upper Orinoco. Parts of southernmost Venezuela, northernmost Brazil. 'Anandenanthera peregrina occurs naturally and sometimes apparently cultivated in the plains or grassland areas of the Orinoco basin of Colombia and Venezuela, in light forests in southern British Guiana, and in the Rio Branco area of the northern Amazonia of Brazil. It may also occur in isolated savanna areas in the Rio Madiera region.
| ? Ayahuasca admixture plants (notes) | ||
| SYNONYMS: | Ayahuasca, Caapi, Yaje'; Pinde, Nate'ma, oco-yaje, Da'pa; Mihi, Kahi | |
| Regions where caapi is used: | AMAZON RIVER: | Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru |
| ORINOCO RIVER: | Venezuela, Pacific Coast of Brazil | |
| NORTHWESTERN AMAZON: | caapi snuff | |
| COLOMBIA/VENEZUELA: | dried stem bark chewed | |