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BOADO, ALICIA
A Historical-Anthropological Review of Drugs in Different Cultures; Resena historica-antropologica de las drogas en distintas culturas
RS, Cuadernos de Realidades Sociales; 1984, 23-24, Jan, 131-152.
A historical sketch of drug usage in ancient, medieval, & modern cultures. Fourteen different drugs are discussed, including: mild drugs, eg, tobacco, coffee, & tea; mid-strength drugs, eg, alcohol & marijuana; & very potent drugs, eg, opium derivatives & LSD. Also described are drugs seldom encountered in the Western cultures, eg, kawa-kawa (piper methysticum), a strong intoxicant used in Oceania.
BOURGUIGNON, ERIKA
Trance and shamanism: What's in a name? Special Issue: Shamanism and altered states of consciousness.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs; 1989 Jan-Mar Vol 21(1) 9-15
Suggests that it is misleading to apply the term 'shamanism' to all ritual trance specialists or to use the trance criterion exclusively to characterize a shaman. The implications of the definitions and typologies of trance and shamanism for the development and testing of cross-cultural hypotheses are considered in a review of anthropological literature. The importance of social and cultural context to shamanism is noted.
Bowker, John.
The Sense of God: Sociological, Anthropological and Psychological Approaches to the Origin of the Sense of God.
Oxford: Clarendon Press. (1973)
BRIGHTMAN, ROBERT A; MEYER, DAVID; MARANO, LOU
On Windigo Psychosis
Current Anthropology; 1983, 24, 1, Feb, 120-121.
Comments are offered on Lou Marano's discussion of the windigo literature (see SA 32:5/84O2852). Robert A. Brightman (University of Wisconsin, Madison) finds excessively categorical Marano's claim that the cannibalism ascribed to windigos is solely an ideological rationalization for homicide, given records of cannibalism among Northern Algonkians. David Meyer (Saskatchewan Research Council, Saskatoon) finds valuable Marano's debunking of the windigo psychosis concept, but calls for attention to variation in windigo beliefs among varied cultures. In Reply, Lou Marano (Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa) questions the validity of Brightman's evidence for the actual occurrence of windigo behavior & examines some additional evidence on windigo beliefs. Both emic & etic analyses appear to be needed.
Castaneda,Carlos
The power of silence : further lessons of Don Juan
New York : Simon and Schuster, 1987. 265 P. ; 18 cm.
Keywords:
Anthropologists--Mexico--Biography.
Awareness.
Castaneda, Carlos, 1931-
Hallucinogenic drugs.
Hallucinogenic drugs and religious experience.
Indians of Mexico--Religion and mythology.
Juan, Don, 1891-
Knowledge, Sociology of.
Yaqui Indians--Religion and mythology.
COLORADO, PAM; COLLINS, DON
Western Scientific Colonialism and the Re-Emergence of Native Science
Practice; 1987, 5, 3, winter, 50-65.
Native American science is described in detail & compared with Western science. Native American science was inaccessible to other ethnic groups who approached Indian culture with nineteenth-century racism or through cultural anthropology. The four dynamics that drive Indian science are feelings, history as a tool, prayer as a medicine, & relations; its goal is reaching a state of balance. European science, it is asserted, should properly be considered one of many conceptual traditions.
DE RIOS, MARLENE D; SMITH, DAVID E
Using or abusing? An anthropological approach to the study of psychoactive drugs.
Journal of Psychedelic Drugs; 1976 Jul-Sep Vol 8(3) 263-266
Reviews the ritual use of psychoactive plants in 12 traditional cultures throughout the world. Generally, the use is controlled and supervised by experienced elders (elite group), and the users attending the rite are well informed about what to expect. Adoption of ritualism might resolve some of the problems in contemporary American counterculture.
Dobkin de Rios, Marlene & Smith, David E.
Using or Abusing? An Anthropological Approach to the Study of Psychoactive Drugs.
Journal of Psychedelic Drugs 8(3):263-266. (1976)
Dobkin de Rios, Marlene.
The Influence of Psychotropic Flora and Fauna on Maya Religion.
Current Anthropology 15(2):147-152. (1974)
DORNSTREICH, MARK D; MORREN, GEORGE E B
Does New Guinea Cannibalism Have Nutritional Value?
Human Ecology; 1974, 2, 1, Jan, 1-12.
Any attempt to establish the material value of cannibalism in tropical nutrition must be empirical, & placed within a context of local human ecology & a subsistence patterns. An attempt is made to consider (1) how some aspects of a generalized ecological approach to the study of subsistence patterns can be related to cannibalism, (2) suggestions as to what quantitative considerations the practice of cannibalism involves, as well as what kind of ecological data is necessary to research this question from an empirical point of view, & (3) to refer to several accounts of cannibalism as it occurs in New Guinea, & to outline the conclusion that the nutritional benefits or significance of the practice of cannibalism has to be viewed against the background of the behavior of these aborigines. The practice of cannibalism becomes interesting when one considers its historical persistence, its frequent occurrence & its labeling--by anthropologists--as a manifestation of bizarre behavior. The question of nutritional value of cannibalism is examined; this cannot properly be determined except in the context of the total subsistence economy & local human ecology. A format for the empirical investigation of food-getting & new ethnographic information about New Guinea cannibalism is presented. It is determined that this practice does have nutritional value for tropical peoples living at low-medium population densities & exploiting a diverse range of animal foods.
FORSYTH, DONALD W
The Beginnings of Brazilian Anthropology: Jesuits and Tupinamba Cannibalism
Journal of Anthropological Research; 1983, 39, 2, summer, 147-178.
Jesuit missionaries who lived & worked among the Tupian-speaking Indians of sixteenth-century costal Brazil have provided valuable information on the customs & practices of these Indians. The contributions to Brazilian ethnography of such Jesuits as Nobrega, Anchieta, Cardim, Soares, & others is illustrated by translations from their writings, most of which are unavailable in English. In particular, William Arens's thesis (The Man-Eating Myth: Anthropology and Anthropophagy, New York: Oxford University Press, 1979) that Brazilian Indians really did not practice cannibalism as reported by French & German sources is reexamined. The Jesuit sources strongly support the argument that anthropophagy was an integral part of Tupian cultural practice.
FUCHS, ANDREW
Coca chewing and high-altitude stress: Possible effects of coca alkaloids on erythropoiesis.
Current Anthropology; 1978 Jun Vol 19(2) 277-291
Contends that there is a relationship between the use of coca by Andean Indians and high-altitude hypoxia stress. Where there are exceptions to a strict altitude/coca-chewing correspondence, an explanation which also emphasizes polycythemic stress rather than either cold or hypoxia alone is indicated. It is proposed that the antimuscarinic ingredients in the coca leaf act upon critical areas of the posterior hypothalamus to depress erythropoiesis. By so doing they are antagonists to the hypoxia which stimulates excessive red blood cell production. A strength of this explanation is that some of the symptoms of chronic polycythemia are identical to those conditions which chewers seek to alleviate by their use of coca (fatigue and pain). Further support is derived from the existence of data which indicate that when nutrition and disease are taken into account as influencing factors, coca chewers present lower red blood cell levels than matched controls. More research regarding the effect of long-term coca chewing on erythropoiesis is needed. Review comments and a reply by the author are included.
Hatch, Marion Popenoe.
An Hypothesis on Olmec Astronomy, With Special Reference to the La Venta Site.
Contributions of the University of California Archaeological Research Facility, No. 13. Berkeley: University of California, Department of Anthropology. (1971)
Heine-Geldern, Robert von.
Cultural Connections between Asia and pre-Columbian America.
Anthropos 45:350-2. (1950)
HYNDMAN,DC:
Ethnobotany of Wopkaimin Pandanus: Significant Papua New Guinea Plant Resource.
Econ Bot 38 3: 287-303 (1984) English (dept of Anthropology & Sociology University of Queensland St.lucia
Karsten, Rafael.
The Toba Indians of the Bolivian Gran Chaco.
Acta Academiae Aboensis, Humaniora IV. Rpt. Oosterhout N.B., The Netherlands: Anthropological Publications. (1970)
Kennedy, Alison Bailey.
Ecce Bufo: The Toad in Nature and in Olmec Iconography.
Current Anthropology 23(3):273-290. (1982)
KULICK AR; POPE HG JR; KECK PE JR
Lycanthropy and self-identification.
J Nerv Ment Dis. 1990 Feb; 178(2): 134-7
Lycanthropy, an unusual psychiatric syndrome involving the delusion of being an animal, usually occurs as a transient symptom of severe psychosis. A review of the historical and modern medical literature, as well as of contemporary anthropological reports, suggests multiple etiologies for lycanthropy, including seizure disorders and use of psychotomimetic drugs. A clinical illustration is presented in which the delusion of being an animal in human form has persisted for over 15 years and has been refractory to treatment. The authors speculate that disturbances of self-identity may combine with neurological abnormalities to produce some cases of this syndrome.
La Barre, Weston.
[Review] Utopiates: The Use and Users of LSD-25.
Richard Blum and Associates. Amer. Anthropologist 67:595-597. (1965)
La Barre, Weston.
[Review] Anthropological Views of Cannabis.
(1977)
LINDEN, RICK; CURRIE, RAYMOND F; DRIEDGER, LEO
Interpersonal Ties and Alcohol Use among Mennonites
Revue Canadienne de Sociologie et d'Anthropologie / Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology; 1985, 22, 4, Nov, 559-573.
The widely different patterns of alcohol use among people of different countries & among different groups within countries make it apparent that cultural factors are important determinants of alcohol use. Research on this relationship suggests that it is the social groups to which an individual belongs that provide the mechanism through which the cultural norms regarding alcohol use influence the individual's behavior. Based on questionnaire data, the effect of interpersonal ties on the drinking behavior of a national sample of Canadian Mennonites (number of cases = 1,208 respondents) is examined, using a theoretical model that combines social control & differential association theories. Drinking was found to be related to the behavioral preferences of reference others. These effects varied with the closeness of the relationship with that particular associate, & with the actor's visibility to each associate.
LYON ML
Order and healing: the concept of order and its importance in the conceptualization of healing.
Med Anthropol. 1990 Aug; 12(3): 249-68
This paper concerns the notion of order and its role in the conceptualization of healing, and therefore its importance to healing itself. It proposes a model of healing in which order is central. The paper begins with an example drawn from Javanese mystical practices which are based upon the concept of the unity of the human and natural orders. The Javanese case provides a metaphor for an expanded notion of order. This prefigures a consideration of the nature of the concept of order in medical anthropology, science, and medicine. The importance of the notion of analogy (and metaphor) in the concept of order and how order may be simultaneously conceptualized in both cognitive and biological domains is also discussed in the paper. The perspective on order and healing developed here goes beyond conventional biomedical categories and provides a basis for the fundamental reconceptualizations necessary for addressing contemporary developments in psychoneuroimmunology, for example.
MCKENNA, TERENCE
The Role of psychedelic plants in human evolution : food of the Gods
Pacific Radio Archive (1992): Audio Tape 1 reel (55 min.) 7 1/2 ips., mono.
For cassette copies call She Who Remembers (818) 287-8254.
Talk by Terence McKenna which advances the theories of his book "Food of the Gods: The Search for the Original Tree of Knowledge." He argues that we need to reintroduce psychedelic experience into contemporary culture in light of anthropological evidence which suggests a long relationship between psychedelics and religion. He traces some of the historical uses of psychedelics in ritual and its effects upon human behavior. He contrasts psycedelics with addictive drugs, and argues for its role in consciousness raising. Concludes with a question and answer session.
MCLAREN, CAROL SHEEHAN
Moment of Death: Gift of Life-A Reinterpretation of the Northwest Coast Image 'Hawk'
Anthropologica; 1978, 20, 1-2, 65-90.
Studies of Northwest Coast Indian cultures can draw on two important anthropological traditions, those of Boas & Levi-Strauss, whose major strengths are, respectively, fieldwork & structural logic. Boas's studies of Northwest Coast art rest on an inadequate model of meaning in which each design is given a single noun as a name, rather than having its full range of implied activity understood. The image 'Hawk' identified by Boas is an anomaly, in that the image is used virtually everywhere while the hawk is not an important mythological creature, & in that the portrayal is not like the hawk in key traits, such as having both a beak & a mouth. A major mythic entity for the Kwagiu, however, is the salmon, which is their major food source & source of wealth, symbolically linked with copper & with abalones. The visual image taken as 'Hawk' can be taken, on the basis of its actual visual characteristics, as that of a salmon. The total system of concepts clustering around it includes images of wealth, supernatural power, & reincarnation. Reincarnation is linked with cannibalism, & the salmon is seen as devouring itself, & as giving itself for human consumption & thus being a source of wealth. The image thus makes thinkable the transformation of life & wealth into poverty & death.
MOERMAN, DANIEL E
Desmanthus illinoensis
'Research Reports in Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants of Native America vol.1&2'; University of Michigan of Anthropology, Technical Reports #19; QK99.N7 M64 (1986)
Desmanthus Illinoensis, Fabaceae: PAIUTE EYE MEDICINE. Five seeds placed in eye at night to cure trachoma; washed out in morning. PAWNEE DERMATOLOGICAL AID. Acuan illinoensis. Spider Bean. Decoction of leaves used as a wash to cure the itch.
Nimuendaju, Curt.
The Apinaye.
Ed. Robert H. Lowie & John M. Cooper. Rpt. Oosterhout N.B., The Netherlands: Anthropological Publications. (1967)
NOLL, RICHARD
What has really been learned about shamanism? Special Issue: Shamanism and altered states of consciousness.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs; 1989 Jan-Mar Vol 21(1) 47-50
The anthropological literature on shamanism appears to be organized in terms of oppositional pairs of prescriptions inherited from psychology. These pairs include conscious mentalism-unconscious mentalism, contentual objectivism-contentual subjectivism, environmentalism-nativism, monopsychism-polypsychism, mechanism-vitalism, and quantitativism-qualitativism. While scholars of shamanism will align themselves along the prescriptive lines that coincide with their own personal biases, they will no doubt continue to search for new avenues of reconciliation for these oppositional prescriptive pairs.
OPLER, MARVIN K
The character and history of the southern Ute peyote rite.
American Anthropologist; Vol 42, pp 463-478 (1940)
Compares the origin, practice and community acceptance of the peyote rite among the Ute in Towaoc and Ignacio areas of Colorado. A peyote healing ceremony in Ignacio is described. In Towaoc the use of peyote is accepted by the entire community and has incorporated more of the traditional Ute shamanic practices than in Ignacio. In Ignacio, the community is deeply divided over the issue of peyote use.
PAGE, J BRYAN; FLETCHER, JACK M; TRUE, WILLIAM R
Psychosociocultural perspectives on chronic cannabis use: The Costa Rican follow-up. Special Issue: Marijuana--an update.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs; 1988 Jan-Mar Vol 20(1) 57-65
Conducted a 4-yr follow-up of Costa Rican marihuana users and matched nonusers previously studied by W. E. Carter et al (1980). 57 of 82 Ss were available at follow-up. They completed a test battery including the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS); measures of lateralized motor and tactile performance, learning and memory, sustained attention and concentration, and speeded motor planning; the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF); and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). Results indicate that users were slower in processing and on self-paced measures requiring sustained attention than nonusers. Anthropological findings are discussed with reference to cognitive function testing.
Peyote Music. David P. McAllester.Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology Number Thirteen. Johnson Reprint Corp. New York. 1971 repring of 1949 original. paperback. [large box 2m]
Peyotism in the West. Omer C. Stewart and David F. Aberle. University of Utah Press - Anthropological Papers No. 108. Salt Lake City, UT. 1984. paperback. 291 pages. $18.70.
REID, SUSAN
The Kwakiutl Man Eater
Anthropologica; 1979, 21, 2, 247-275.
The comparative analysis method is used to supplement R. Ridington's analysis of Beaver cannibalism. The comparison relied upon is from Kwakiutl sources. Mythological animals who engage in man-eating, as described in Kawkiutl traditions are considered. The cultural factor which, among both the Beaver & the Kwakiutl, encourages cannibalistic behavior & helps them to avoid psychosis is their treatment of social space. Both peoples believe that an adult must have some distance from society, which he expresses in symbolic behavior. That behavior includes imitating animal spirits that have given him power; the scope which the culture gives to this imitation includes cannibalistic behavior. HA Tr & Modified by S. Karganovic
Rubin, ed.
Cannabis and Culture.
Reviews in Anthropology 4(3):237-250. ()
SCHULTES R E
Teonanacatl: The Narcotic Mushroom of the Aztecs.
American Anthropologist; Vol 42 pp 429-443 (1940)
[NO ABSTRACT] Schultes suggests that Teonanacatl is a mushroom.
SCIULLI PW; SCHNEIDER KN; MAHANEY MC
Stature estimation in prehistoric Native Americans of Ohio.
Am J Phys Anthropol. 1990 Nov; 83(3): 275-80
In the present report we investigate stature estimation techniques in a sample of 64 (35 male, 29 female) prehistoric Native Americans from Ohio. Because living stature is unknown for these 64 individuals, we use Fully's (1956) anatomical method to provide the best estimates of living stature. In this method all osseous components of skeletal height are measured and soft tissue correction is added. Comparisons of regression equations commonly used for stature estimation in prehistoric Eastern Woodland Native American populations, but developed for East Asian and East Asian-derived populations (using lower extremity components), show that these commonly used equations consistently yield stature estimates 2 to 8 cm in excess of the best estimates from Fully's method. Based on the skeletal height measures of the 64 individuals in the present sample, we develop regression equations for the estimation of stature. These equations yield stature estimates virtually identical to estimates from Fully's method and may prove useful for stature reconstruction in other prehistoric Eastern Woodland Native American populations.
SIEGEL, RONALD K
An ethologic search for self-administration of hallucinogens.
International Journal of the Addictions; 1973 Vol. 8(2) 373-393
Examines the traditional assumption that man is the only species which self-administers psychoactive drugs (e.g., the hallucinogens) in light of recent ethological, laboratory, anthropological, and sociological findings. Several examples of infrahuman organisms in natural environments self-administering hallucinogens by accident or on purpose are presented. The need for controlled studies to identify the biological, environmental, and pharmacological variables is discussed. Evidence for hallucinogen-induced changes in the social behavior of human and infrahuman populations is reviewed. It is concluded that the primary ethologic effect in all species is social isolation.
Stoffle, Richard W.; Halmo, David B.; Evans, Michael J.
Calculating the cultural significance of American Indian plants: Paiute and Shoshone ethnobotany at Yucca Mountain, Nevada
American Anthropologist v92 p416-32 June 1990
SUBJECTS: Indians of North America/Plants and plant lore Mountains/Nevada
TURNER, D H
Windigo Mythology and the Analysis of Cree Social Structure
Anthropologica; 1977, 19, 1, 63-73.
When studied from a structuralist standpoint, certain Cree 'cannibalistic' myths reveal aspects of traditional social organization. Analysis here is based on data collected recently among the Cree of northern Manitoba. Analysis of the myths appears to be a breakthrough in unlocking the Cree mythological code & illustrates that the Cree system functions by way of incorporation. It has been formed by the tension among potentially autonomous groups on increasingly higher organizational levels. In the Windigo myth, which is analyzed here, cannibalism symbolizes the the incorporation into a social grouping & the various acts & relations described in the story mediate opposed tendencies toward autonomy at the domestic, brotherhood, & band levels. The myth here describes how Windigo's son killed & ate his wife. Content analysis illustrates that the Windigo syndrome is not explicable in terms of sociobiological & psychological paradigms. Rather, it seems that the myth functions to 'define the concept of human personness for the Northeast Algonkians.' There is a dominant Cree concern with questions of social, economic, & environmental extremes (eg, pulls toward & away from the domestic group; summer storm & winter freeze). The myths are 'experimental' reflections on those social relationships. HA Tr & Modified by S. Karganovic
WAISBERG, LEO G
Boreal Forecast Subsistence and the Windigo: Fluctuation of Animal Populations
Anthropologica; 1975, 17, 2, 169-185.
There has been much controversy concerning 'Windigo psychosis,' which involves an ideological focus on the cannibal spirit resulting from a diminishing food supply. It is possible that Windigo psychosis postdates contact with the white man; however, starvation does not & makes that theory appear shaky. There is no simple causal relationship between mental attitudes & a society's socioeconomic core because the core is not a stable system. Ecological conditions varied throughout the boreal forest & its southern & northern margins. There were regional & local differences in game density at all times. It is reasonable to postulate that Algonkian hunting patterns were adjusted to variable conditions both before & after the appearance of Europeans. To illustrate the variability of the environment, pertinent data are presented for plants, game, & weather. The discussion weakens the cultural ecology notion that includes only the physical & natural aspects of the environment & regards it as a stable entity. Change is thought to come from outside, eg, new technological advances, or chance factors such as European contact. This analysis of the ecology of the northern animal populations refutes that concept by showing unmistakable signs of fluctuation within the ecological system itself.
Wakinyan: Contemporary Teton Dakota Religion. Stephen E. Feraca. Bureau of Indian Affairs. Dept. of the Interior. Blackfeet Agency. Museum of the Plains Indian. Studies in Plains Anthropology and History, no. 2. Browning MO. 1963. 78 pages. photocopy velobound in anthology Peyote Religion Among Northern Tribes. [box v2]
WASSON RG
The Role of 'Flowers' in Nahuatl Culture: A Suggested Interpretation.
Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University (1973) Vol.23 No.8 p305-324
SUBJECTS: Statue of Xochipilli in Museo Nacional de Anthropologia in Mexico City, psychedelic plants, Mesoamerica, Aztecs, Mushrooms.
WINKELMAN, MICHAEL; BHARATI, AGEHANANDA; BOURGUIGNON, ERIKA; DE RIOS, MARLENE DO
Magic: A Theoretical Reassessment
Current Anthropology; 1982, 23, 1, Feb, 37-44.
A comparison of aspects of magical belief & practice with elements identified in experimental parapsychology suggests that some magical phenomena may have their basis in what parapsychologists call psi. Similarities are found between magic & parapsychology in: (1) conditions that facilitate the manifestation of magical & psi phenomena, (2) the mental processes implicated as effective in producing such phenomena, (3) the basic principles underlying these phenomena, (4) the characteristics of the phenomena likely affected by magical action & psi, & (5) the characteristics of the origin of magic suggested by Bronislaw Malinowski ('Magic, Science, and Religion' in Magic, Science, and Religion and Other Essays, New York: Doubleday [Anchor], 1954, 17-92) & the characteristics of the basis of psi. These congruences are used to identify aspects of magic likely to be psi-related. Previous theories of magic are integrated in a theory that places psi & other universal psychological phenomena at the basis of magic, & explains the integration of magical, social, cosmological, & religious phenomena as a product of metaphoric predication & analogical thinking. Comments are offered by Agehananda Bharati (Syracuse University, NY), Erika Bourguignon (Ohio State University, 124 West 17th Ave, Columbus), Marlene Dobkin de Rios (California State University, Fullerton), Alan Dundes (University of California, Berkeley), Jule Eisenbud (4634 East 6th Ave, Denver, Colo), Felicitas D. Goodman (Cuyamungue Institute, 114 East Duncan St, Columbus, Ohio), C. R. Hallpike (McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario), Ake Hultkrantz (Seglarvagen 7, 181 62 Lidingo, Sweden), I. C. Jarvie (1044 19th St, Santa Monica, Calif), Barbara W. Lex (Alcohol & Drug Abuse Research Center, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Mass), Joseph K. Long (Plymouth State college, Plymouth, NH), Leonard W. Moss (Wayne State University, Detroit, Mich), Richard J. Preston (McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario), Lola Romanucci-Ross (University of California San Diego, La Jolla), Hans Sebald (Arizona State University, Tempe), Dean Sheils (University of Wisconsin, La Crosse), Philip Singer & Kate Ware Ankenbrandt (Center for Health Sciences, Oakland University, Rochester, Mich), & Sheila Womack (University City Science Center, 3624 Market St, Philadelphia, Pa), with a Reply by Michael Winkelman that examines several issues: the magic/psi linkage as a new paradigm, the definition of magic, cultural factors shaping response to reports of psychokinesis & conceptualizations of psi & mana, the relationship between psychosomatic & psychokinetic effects, the reliability of parapsychological research, & misrepresentations contained in the criticisms presented. 258 References.
| American Indian Ethnobotany Database at the University of Minnesota. Foods, Drugs, Dyes, and Fibers of Native North American Peoples. Materials provided by Dan Moerman, Professor of Anthropology. |